GROUNDWATER in AFRICA - Framing the state-of-the-art on the use of software and digital tools for subsurface hydrology and hydrochemistry in the African continent

ABSTRACT
Groundwater is a resource of increasing prominence in Africa whose potential has still to be developed in full capacity. Digital tools may support and boost efficient data management so that more technically sound and even community-based decisions may be made. In this view, development and diffusion of robust open source and free software constitutes a cornerstone to enhance groundwater management, thus empowering as much as possible research and technical units in academia, water authorities, and private companies, with a special regard to communities/countries with limited resources. In this context, we attempt to frame the state-of-the-art on the use of digital tools for sustainable groundwater management in the African continent. Starting from a comprehensive literature review and performing investigations via a structured questionnaire on ongoing practices at institutional and private sector level, the results of the research allow a clear view on the present level of knowledge and on the diffusion of such tools.
The most widespread digital tools for groundwater resource management are calculation spreadsheets, then Geographic Information Systems applications, followed by numerical modelling tools, and last advanced tools for statistical analyses. We used experiences in groundwater numerical modelling, retrieved in scientific papers with African scientists as first author, as a proxy for assessing the level of digitalisation in groundwater resource management in Africa. The data gathered show that at present the use of digital tools/groundwater numerical models is deemed to be an occasional activity, mostly applied for large engineering projects or basic modelling studies, and rarely used for planning and management of the resource. All in all their use in the period 2000-2020 can be considered low. Groundwater numerical modelling and/or other digital tools are still seen as research oriented tools. There is a clear difference in their use between North Africa, where five countries barely produced in 20 years the same number of studies than Sub-Saharan African countries.
When evaluating current will in African institutions (academic and governmental) digital tools are recognised as needed tools for groundwater resource management at national or regional level. Skills and capacities for dealing with groundwater management using digital tools are considered missing by the 50% of our sample. As such, the need for capacity building on the use of digital tools for groundwater management is (extremely) high.
Commercial software solutions still dominate the market in Africa (i.e. in GIS applications and Graphical User Interfaces for numerical modelling), while open source ones appeared in increasing trend of usage in the last years. A large part of the interviewed prefer open source software (71%), to commercial ones (22%). Open source software is preferred because of the possibility of developing tailored applications thanks to the code availability, software reliability and easy to use. Open source and free software would be used if adequate training would be provided by 70% of the respondents, but a further 30% would require also support in the software use.
Finally, main barriers in the use of digital tools are: i) scarcity of data to develop a model, ii) inadequate resources to develop and maintain a model, and iii) missing capacities. Digitalisation of groundwater-related data in digital archives is a need. On another view, the main problems are related to the lack of computing skills and lack of computing resources. In addition to these, the lack of adequate and well-functioning data transmission networks (Internet) is considered the main bottleneck in favouring the spread of new technologies.